## Analogue Films & Common Film Faults Dr Dayea Oh OMF Radiologist  Dr Dayea Oh OMF Radiologist A clinical photograph showing a stack of radiographic films (analogue films) arranged in a holder or cassette. The image serves as a background for the title slide 'Analogue Films & Common Film Faults' presented by Dr Dayea Oh. **Review of Intra-oral Radiography** **Intra-oral Radiography:** * **2D**, diagnostic imaging using ionising radiation (= x-ray beam) * **Clinical workflow:** * Film / receptor placed intra-orally $\rightarrow$ Expose (the film & the patient) with x-ray beam $\rightarrow$ film processing $\rightarrow$ diagnostic image production * Images are of **black** (radiolucent), **white** (radiopaque) and grey 'shadows' * **Three types:** * Bitewing (**BW**), Periapical (**PA**) & Occlusal * Digital or analogue  **Review of Intra-oral Radiography** **Intra-oral Radiography:** - 2D, diagnostic imaging using ionising radiation (= x-ray beam) - **Clinical workflow:** - Film / receptor placed intra-orally → Expose (the film & the patient) with x-ray beam → film processing → diagnostic image production - Images are of **black** (radiolucent), **white** (radiopaque) and grey 'shadows' - **Three types:** - Bitewing (**BW**), Periapical (**PA**) & Occlusal - Digital or analogue Flowchart illustrating the clinical workflow for intra-oral radiography. The diagram shows a sequence of steps connected by arrows: 'Film / receptor placed intra-orally' leading to 'Expose (the film & the patient) with x-ray beam', which then leads to 'film processing', and finally to 'diagnostic image production'. This visual representation summarizes the procedural steps described in the OCR text. **Left Posterior Bitewing (BW)**      Left Posterior Bitewing (BW) Clinical photo of a dental examination procedure. A dentist in white scrubs is operating equipment on a patient reclined in a dental chair against a purple background. Technical illustration of a red intraoral positioning device or bite block with an attached sensor and metal rod. Product shot of a white textured dental bite block (bite registration material) with a tab for attachment. Clinical photo of a male patient wearing a protective collar and having a radiographic sensor positioned inside his mouth by a gloved hand. Dental radiograph showing the left posterior teeth (premolars and molars). The image displays the crowns and roots clearly, used to detect interproximal caries. Several bright white areas indicate existing restorations (fillings). # Learning Objectives * Understand the **composition** of a general analogue film * What is a **latent image**? * How is a latent image **processed** to form a final image? * What are the **factors that affect** the final image **quality**? * Understand how to **assess faulty radiographs** - Understand the **composition** of a general analogue film - What is a **latent image**? - How is a latent image **processed** to form a final image? - What are the **factors that affect** the final image **quality**? - Understand how to **assess faulty radiographs** What you’ll see on the outside… • Intra-oral film packet • Plastic cover → *moisture-proof* • Orientation dot (dot to the mesial) • Inner paper wrap / black paper wrap → *light-proof* • Lead foil backing → *prevents residual radiation continuing on into patient’s tissues* • ANALOGUE FILM  What you’ll see on the outside… - Intra-oral film packet - Plastic cover → *moisture-proof* - Orientation dot (dot to the mesial) - Inner paper wrap / black paper wrap → *light-proof* - Lead foil backing → *prevents residual radiation continuing on into patient’s tissues* - ANALOGUE FILM Clinical photograph showing two opened intra-oral film packets. The image visually demonstrates the components listed in the text: a plastic cover, an orientation dot (visible on the top of the left packet), an inner paper wrap (silver foil visible inside), and a lead foil backing (purple outer layer). The text 'OPPOSITE SIDE TOWARD TUBE' is printed on the purple wrapper. What you can’t see inside… • Double emulsion film $\rightarrow$ • **Emulsion** = where image is recorded • Sensitive to x-rays, visible light & UV • Double layers (to reduce radiation dosage) • **Base** = film support • Clear, transparent plastic • **Others**: • Gelatin layer x2 (outer protective layer) • Adhesive layer x2 (between base & emulsion) Fig. 4.3 Diagram showing the cross-sectional structure of double emulsion radiographic film.  What you can’t see inside… - Double emulsion film → - **Emulsion** = where image is recorded - Sensitive to x-rays, visible light & UV - Double layers (to reduce radiation dosage) - **Base** = film support - Clear, transparent plastic - **Others:** - Gelatin layer x2 (outer protective layer) - Adhesive layer x2 (between base & emulsion) Fig. 4.3 Diagram showing the cross-sectional structure of double emulsion radiographic film. Labelled diagram illustrating the cross-sectional structure of double emulsion radiographic film. The diagram displays a central 'Plastic base' (dark grey rectangle) sandwiched between two 'Emulsion (silver halide)' layers (light grey rectangles). Each emulsion layer is bounded by an 'Adhesive' layer and an outer 'Protective layer (gelatin)'. Callout lines point from these labels to their respective components in the stack. Emulsion • Main components: • **Silver halide crystals (or grains)** → sensitive to x-ray photons! • Mostly silver bromide (Ag-Br) crystals → • Vehicle / Gelatin matrix • Suspends silver halide crystals • Allows efficient chemical processing • Overcoat • To protect from damage eg. Scratch  Emulsion - Main components: - **Silver halide crystals (or grains)** → sensitive to x-ray photons! - Mostly silver bromide (Ag-Br) crystals → - Vehicle / Gelatin matrix - Suspends silver halide crystals - Allows efficient chemical processing - Overcoat - To protect from damage eg. Scratch Schematic diagram illustrating the microstructure of an emulsion. The image shows a rectangular field containing numerous irregularly shaped gray shapes representing silver halide crystals (grains) suspended within a lighter background matrix representing gelatin. This visual corresponds to the text description of 'Silver halide crystals' and 'Vehicle / Gelatin matrix'. Latent Image Formation • = exposed film à CHEMICAL change in film emulsion after x-ray exposure Silver bromide (Ag-Br) crystals in the emulsion layer have: Free silver ions (positively charged) and; Sulfur compounds aka ‘sensitivity site’ (SS) Irradiated silver bromide release electrons and bind to 'SS' SS become negatively charged Free silver ions are attracted to negatively charged SS to form neutral silver atom **Remember** – only **IRRADIATED (EXPOSED)** Ag-Br crystals form latent image Photon (wave shown) Ag (atom symbol) Br (atom symbol) e- (electron symbol) SS (sensitivity site shown as cloud) Br—Ag—Br Br—Ag+—Br Br Br—Ag—Br Ag—Ag Ag Ag—Br—Ag—Br—Ag—Br—Ag   Latent Image Formation - = exposed film → CHEMICAL change in film emulsion after x-ray exposure Silver bromide (Ag-Br) crystals in the emulsion layer have: - Free silver ions (positively charged) and; - Sulfur compounds aka ‘sensitivity site’ (SS) Irradiated silver bromide release electrons and bind to 'SS' - SS become negatively charged - Free silver ions are attracted to negatively charged SS to form neutral silver atom **Remember** – only **IRRADIATED (EXPOSED)** Ag-Br crystals form latent image Photon (wave shown) Ag (atom symbol) Br (atom symbol) e- (electron symbol) SS (sensitivity site shown as cloud) Br—Ag—Br Br—Ag+—Br Br Br—Ag—Br Ag—Ag Ag Ag—Br—Ag—Br—Ag—Br—Ag Figure showing a magnified view of the film emulsion layer containing multiple silver bromide (Ag-Br) crystals. The diagram depicts gray irregular shapes representing the crystals scattered across the field. Some crystals contain small yellow dots, while others are empty. A red text annotation below states: '* Remember – only IRRADIATED (EXPOSED) Ag-Br crystals form latent image'. A labelled crystal lattice diagram illustrating the mechanism of latent image formation at the atomic level. The diagram shows a grid structure composed of alternating Silver (Ag) and Bromine (Br) atoms. Labels indicate 'Photon', 'e-' (electron), 'Ag+', 'Sensitivity site', and 'SS'. Arrows depict a photon striking the lattice, releasing an electron that moves to the sensitivity site, followed by the attraction of free silver ions to form neutral silver atoms. Latent Image to Final (Visible) Image - Processing tank (stainless steel) - CHEMICAL PROCESSING (4 steps) 1. Developing solution 2. Water 3. Fixing solution 4. Water & Dry & Mount - Other requirements - Timer - Dry zone / area - Lightproof → 'safelight' Red GXB-2 filter (7.5-15W bulb) - Humidity → 50-70% relative humidity - Temperature → 20-25°C (room temp)  Latent Image to Final (Visible) Image - Processing tank (stainless steel) - CHEMICAL PROCESSING (4 steps) 1. Developing solution 2. Water 3. Fixing solution 4. Water & Dry & Mount - Other requirements: - Timer - Dry zone / area - Lightproof → 'safelight' Red GXB-2 filter (7.5-15W bulb) - Humidity → 50-70% relative humidity - Temperature → 20-25°C (room temp) Diagram showing a person in a white lab coat holding a photographic film or plate under a red 'safelight'. The setup includes a processing tank and taps on a counter, illustrating the chemical processing environment described in the text. # Chemical Processing – 1. Developing * Target: latent image / exposed silver halide crystals * Chemicals used: * **Phenidone** – converts latent image to metallic silver grains via oxidation * **Hydroquinone** – reduces oxidated phenidone to help continuing its action * Sodium sulphite (antioxidant preservative) * Potassium carbonate (activator) * Maintains alkaline environment (developers need pH ~10) * Swells gelatin layer to let developing agents to diffuse more readily * **Benzotriazole** (restrainer) * Restrains developing unexposed Ag-Br crystals → reduces image fogging * Glutaraldehyde * Fungicide * Water * Duration: 3-6 minutes (depending on the temperature)  Chemical Processing – 1. Developing - Target: latent image / exposed silver halide crystals - Chemicals used: - **Phenidone** – converts latent image to metallic silver grains via oxidation - **Hydroquinone** – reduces oxidated phenidone to help continuing its action - Sodium sulphite (antioxidant preservative) - Potassium carbonate (activator) - Maintains alkaline environment (developers need pH ~10) - Swells gelatin layer to let developing agents to diffuse more readily - **Benzotriazole** (restrainer) - Restrains developing unexposed Ag-Br crystals → reduces image fogging - Glutaraldehyde - Fungicide - Water - Duration: 3-6 minutes (depending on the temperature) Diagram illustrating the result of the developing process on silver halide crystals. The image displays a collection of irregularly shaped particles representing crystals within a rectangular frame. Some particles are solid black, representing metallic silver grains formed from exposed and developed crystals. Other particles are light gray, representing unexposed or undeveloped crystals. This visual demonstrates the contrast between developed (black) and undeveloped (gray) areas mentioned in the text. Chemical Processing – 2. Rinsing - Rinse the film in water with gentle agitation - To: - Prevent over-developing - Over-developed images = dark final image (film fog) - Buffer to neutral pH - Duration: 20-30 seconds Chemical Processing – 2. Rinsing - Rinse the film in water with gentle agitation - To: - Prevent over-developing - Over-developed images = dark final image (film fog) - Buffer to neutral pH - Duration: 20-30 seconds Chemical Processing – 3. Fixing • Target = unexposed silver halide crystals **Chemicals used:** • **Ammonium thiosulphate** – removes/dissolves unexposed silver halide crystals • Sodium sulphate (preservative) • Aluminium chloride (hardener) • Reduces swelling of the gelatin from subsequent handling • Acetic acid (acidifier) • Maintains acidic environment (pH 4-4.5) for the fixer • Inactivates residual developing solution, if any • Duration: 8-10 minutes  Chemical Processing – 3. Fixing - Target = unexposed silver halide crystals **Chemicals used:** - **Ammonium thiosulphate** – removes/dissolves unexposed silver halide crystals - Sodium sulphate (preservative) - Aluminium chloride (hardener) - Reduces swelling of the gelatin from subsequent handling - Acetic acid (acidifier) - Maintains acidic environment (pH 4-4.5) for the fixer - Inactivates residual developing solution, if any - Duration: 8-10 minutes Schematic diagram illustrating the state of a photographic emulsion during the fixing process. The image displays numerous black geometric shapes representing silver halide crystals (both exposed and unexposed) distributed across a light gray background. This visual demonstrates the target substrate for the chemical processing step described in the text. Chemical Processing – 4. Final Rinsing * Rinse in water (in bath + under running water) * To: * Prevent over-fixing * Over-fixing causes light image * Remove all the silver thiosulfate complexes (they cause fixer stains = obvious radiopaque areas on the final image)   Chemical Processing – 4. Final Rinsing - Rinse in water (in bath + under running water) - To: - Prevent over-fixing - Over-fixing causes light image - Remove all the silver thiosulfate complexes (they cause fixer stains = obvious radiopaque areas on the final image) Procedure image: Text-based visual instruction titled 'Rinse in water (in bath + under running water)', detailing the final rinsing step in chemical processing. Procedure image: Bulleted list explaining the purpose of the final rinse. Key points include preventing over-fixing (which causes light images) and removing silver thiosulfate complexes to avoid fixer stains that appear as radiopaque areas on the final image. ```mermaid graph TD A[Unexposed film & Ag-Br] --> B[Only exposed Ag-Br form latent image] B --> C["Latent image become real image (image at this stage has fogging due to presence of remaining unexposed Ag-Br)"] C --> D[After fixing \(final image\)] ```  ```mermaid graph TD A[Unexposed film & Ag-Br] --> B[Only exposed Ag-Br form latent image] B --> C["Latent image become real image (image at this stage has fogging due to presence of remaining unexposed Ag-Br)"] C --> D[After fixing \(final image\)] ``` Labelled diagram showing the four stages of photographic film processing: Unexposed film & Ag-Br (top left), Only exposed Ag-Br form latent image (top right), Latent image become real image with fogging (bottom left), and After fixing (final image) (bottom right). Blue arrows indicate the progression through development and fixation steps. # Darkroom Daily Start-up Protocol * Clean & dry benches * Check safelight & check for any light leaks * Check chemical solutions (developers & fixers) * Check the volume & temperature * Stir to equalise the temperature throughout the tanks * Step-wedge test (mainly to test developer) * Compare daily 'test film' with initial 'reference film' * Reference film = processed film when developer & fixer were newly replenished / replaced * When an optical difference is noted, all chemicals need replacement * Weekly clearing time test (fixer efficacy) * Measure time taken to remove all silver halide crystals (unexposed film) * Ideal = 8-10 min (at room temperature ~ 25°C) * Replace fixer if the clearing time doubles  Darkroom Daily Start-up Protocol - Clean & dry benches - Check safelight & check for any light leaks - Check chemical solutions (developers & fixers) - Check the volume & temperature - Stir to equalise the temperature throughout the tanks - Step-wedge test (mainly to test developer) - Compare daily 'test film' with initial 'reference film' - Reference film = processed film when developer & fixer were newly replenished / replaced - When an optical difference is noted, all chemicals need replacement - Weekly clearing time test (fixer efficacy) - Measure time taken to remove all silver halide crystals (unexposed film) - Ideal = 8-10 min (at room temperature ~ 25°C) - Replace fixer if the clearing time doubles A slide titled 'Darkroom Daily Start-up Protocol' outlining a step-by-step procedure for preparing a darkroom. The content is structured as a hierarchical list of tasks including cleaning benches, checking safelights and chemical solutions (volume, temperature), performing a step-wedge test to compare daily 'test film' with an initial 'reference film', and conducting a weekly clearing time test for fixer efficacy. Automatic Processing • Manual processing can take up to >10 min. • Compact ‘darkroom’ unit * No need for a separate dedicated darkroom • Fast process * Passes successively through the developer -> fixer -> water -> and drier (usually 5 min) * High concentration of hydroquinone in developing solution * Often, inadequately rinsed -> discolouration   Automatic Processing - Manual processing can take up to >10 min. - Compact ‘darkroom’ unit - No need for a separate dedicated darkroom - Fast process - Passes successively through the developer -> fixer -> water -> and drier (usually 5 min) - High concentration of hydroquinone in developing solution - Often, inadequately rinsed -> discolouration Photo of a compact automatic film processing unit. The device is grey and white with a red light visible in the top viewing window, illustrating the 'Compact darkroom unit' mentioned in the text. Photo showing a person's arm reaching into the circular opening of an automatic film processor. This visual demonstrates the usage of the machine described in the slide. ```mermaid graph TD A[Film entry] --> B[Developing solution] B --> C[Fixing solution] C --> D[Water wash] D --> E[Drying elements] E --> F[Film exit] ```   ```mermaid graph TD A[Film entry] --> B[Developing solution] B --> C[Fixing solution] C --> D[Water wash] D --> E[Drying elements] E --> F[Film exit] ``` Schematic diagram of a film processing machine showing the path of film through various chemical baths. The process begins at 'Film entry' (left) and moves through 'Developing solution' (yellow), 'Fixing solution' (blue), and 'Water wash' (light beige). After washing, the film passes over 'Drying elements' (orange coils) before exiting at 'Film exit'. Arrows indicate the direction of flow. Photograph of the internal mechanism of a film processor. Visible components include rollers and gears that transport the film. Labels point to key stages: 'Film entrance', 'Developer', 'Fixer', 'Wash', 'Dryer', and 'Film exit'. The image shows the mechanical structure responsible for moving the film through these stages. Analoge Film Viewing • Mount ONLY DRY films • Check orientation • Mandatory information on mounted films: • Patient detail (name, gender, DOB) • Date of exposure • Type of film • Institution / address of practice • Exposure details(if possible) • Light box           Analogue Film Viewing - Mount ONLY DRY films - Check orientation - Mandatory information on mounted films: - Patient detail (name, gender, DOB) - Date of exposure - Type of film - Institution / address of practice - Exposure details (if possible) - Light box Title for a procedure slide outlining steps for handling and viewing analogue films. Step: Mount ONLY DRY films Step: Check orientation Header: Mandatory information on mounted films: Sub-step: Patient detail (name, gender, DOB) Sub-step: Date of exposure Sub-step: Type of film Sub-step: Institution / address of practice Sub-step: Exposure details (if possible) Step: Light box **Film Storage** * Medicolegally, all films must be kept for 7 years* * If child, for 7 years after turning 18 years old * Stored in a cool, dry place * **Check AHPRA / ARPANSA / Radiation Health (in QLD) annually for any change** **Film Storage** - Medicolegally, all films must be kept for 7 years* - If child, for 7 years after turning 18 years old - Stored in a cool, dry place - **Check AHPRA / ARPANSA / Radiation Health (in QLD) annually for any change** Common Film Faults Common Film Faults • Processing Errors - I • Light exposure in darkroom • Dark image = light leak into the darkroom • Film fogging (poor contrast, dark image) = prolonged exposure to safelight • Poor handling • Fingerprints • Nails • Bent films • Developing errors • Over-development → dark image • Under-development → light image • Contaminated film with developer before processing → black spots - Processing Errors - I - Light exposure in darkroom - Dark image = light leak into the darkroom - Film fogging (poor contrast, dark image) = prolonged exposure to safelight - Poor handling - Fingerprints - Nails - Bent films - Developing errors - Over-development → dark image - Under-development → light image - Contaminated film with developer before processing → black spots The provided text is an order of operations for handling images and text: **Image Rules:** * **Image Only**: If the figure is an image with only labels or sparse text, output **ONLY** a brief 2-5 word description wrapped in `` tags. * **Image Context**: If the text on the page only makes sense in the context of a figure or image (labels, names with no context), treat the whole page as a figure: wrap a single brief description in `` tags and output **NOTHING ELSE**. * **Constraints:** NEVER output image descriptions as plain text outside of tags, and NEVER output standard HTML image tags (`<img src="...">`), nor wrapper tags like `<div>` or `<figure>`. **Text Rules:** * Extract all text and prioritize image text, using PDF text to resolve ambiguities. * Format bold text using **bolding**. * Ignore obviously corrupted text. * Format tables in HTML (only tables, nothing else). * Format flowcharts as tables. The input consists of six dental radiographs without any accompanying labels. Therefore, applying the **Counting the Text** and **Image Rules**, the appropriate response is a brief description of the entire figure containing the dental X-rays.       The provided text is an order of operations for handling images and text: #### Image Rules - **Image Only**: If the figure is an image with only labels or sparse text, output **ONLY** a brief 2-5 word description wrapped in `` tags. - **Image Context**: If the text on the page only makes sense in the context of a figure or image (labels, names with no context), treat the whole page as a figure: wrap a single brief description in `` tags and output **NOTHING ELSE**. - **Constraints:** NEVER output image descriptions as plain text outside of tags, and NEVER output standard HTML image tags (`<img src="...">`), nor wrapper tags like `<div>` or `<figure>`. #### Text Rules - Extract all text and prioritize image text, using PDF text to resolve ambiguities. - Format bold text using **bolding**. - Ignore obviously corrupted text. - Format tables in HTML (only tables, nothing else). - Format flowcharts as tables. The input consists of six dental radiographs without any accompanying labels. Therefore, applying the **Counting the Text** and **Image Rules**, the appropriate response is a brief description of the entire figure containing the dental X-rays. Radiograph showing a tooth with an arrow pointing to the root and another arrow indicating a radiolucency or lesion. Radiograph displaying multiple teeth with fillings and a distinct radiopaque object in the center. Radiograph showing several teeth with varying degrees of radiopacity and some areas of radiolucency. Radiograph highlighting two arrows pointing to specific areas around the roots of teeth, possibly indicating pathology or anatomical features. Radiograph showing a section of the jaw with teeth and surrounding bone structure, no specific annotations. Radiograph with two arrows pointing to specific areas around the roots of teeth, possibly indicating pathology or anatomical features. Processing Errors - II • Fixing errors * Over-fixing $\rightarrow$ light image (or clear) * Under-fixing $\rightarrow$ dark image * Contaminated film with fixer before processing $\rightarrow$ white / clear spots * Film in fixer before developer $\rightarrow$ clear image • Rinsing errors * Inadequate rinsing $\rightarrow$ Brown image (usually from fixer staining) * Over-rinsing $\rightarrow$ emulsion peel ie. No image     #### Fixing Errors - Over-fixing → light image (or clear) - Under-fixing → dark image - Contaminated film with fixer before processing → white / clear spots - Film in fixer before developer → clear image #### Rinsing Errors - Inadequate rinsing → Brown image (usually from fixer staining) - Over-rinsing → emulsion peel, i.e., no image Radiograph demonstrating a 'light image (or clear)' result. The teeth appear very faint against the background, consistent with the text description of over-fixing. Radiograph showing distinct white/clear spots scattered across the image. This demonstrates the error described as 'Contaminated film with fixer before processing'. Radiograph exhibiting a brownish tint and discoloration. This visual corresponds to the text description of 'Inadequate rinsing' resulting in a brown image from fixer staining. A figure illustrating an emulsion peel or missing image. A blue arrow points to a vertical line on the film surface, indicating where the emulsion has separated or peeled off, corresponding to the 'Over-rinsing' error. # Beam-related Errors * **Exposure setting errors** * **Underexposure $\rightarrow$ light image** * Insufficient mA * Insufficient kVp * Insufficient time * Long film-source distance * Film reversed in mouth * **Overexposure $\rightarrow$ dark image** * Excessive mA * Excessive kVp * Excessive time * **Beam misalignment $\rightarrow$ Cone-cutting (partial image)** - **Exposure setting errors** - **Underexposure → light image** - Insufficient mA - Insufficient kVp - Insufficient time - Long film-source distance - Film reversed in mouth - **Overexposure → dark image** - Excessive mA - Excessive kVp - Excessive time - **Beam misalignment → Cone-cutting (partial image)**  Composite radiographic figure displaying various dental X-ray artifacts and processing errors. The image is organized into a grid of film holders with arrows pointing to specific defects and accompanying text labels. Visible issues include: 'Partial immersion in developer' (showing partial exposure), 'Over developed' (darkened image), 'Cone cutting' (cropped edges), 'Fixer splashed on film before processing' (white spots), 'Elongation' (stretched vertical anatomy), 'Forshortening' (compressed vertical anatomy), 'Not washing adequately post development or developer on film before processing' (hazy background), 'Not exposed', 'Left in wash over-night', 'Put into fixer before developer' (clear white images), and 'Film positioned backwards' (inverted anatomical orientation). # X-Ray Film Problems and Their Causes ## **POSITIVE-FADING OR WASHED OUT (Fig. 5-34)** ### Causes in Exposure Factors * Incorrectly installed long-focus cone tip * Film-source distance is too far * Excessive kVp * Power-failure during exposure * Not using film cassette or trouble with cassette (bending) ### Causes in Processing * Improper time-temperature setting for development (too cool) * High concentration of developer solution * Stale developer solution * New and fresh fixer solution * Failure to fix (insufficient time in fixer) * Developer has not reached the film during processing * In prolonged processing, the film was agitated too little ## **NEGATIVE-FADING OR DENSIFICATION (Fig. 5-35)** ### Causes in Exposure Factors * Insufficient time * Insufficient current (mA)? * Insufficient kVp * Power-failure during exposure * Not using film cassette or trouble with cassette (bending) ### Causes in Processing * Inadequate or old developer solution * Excessive development time for solution temperature * Old fixer solution * In new film processing, insufficient agitation time of the developer ## **WHITE BLENDS (Fig. 5-36)** ### Cause in Exposure Factors * Improperly exposed or old double emulsion X-ray films * Film brought into contact with fluorescent lamps ### Cause in Processing * Improper time-temperature setting for development (too cool) * Undiluted or insufficiently diluted developer solution * Stale developer solution * Improper film sorting class * Improper storage of films in humid or hot conditions ## **RADIATION (Fig. 5-37)** ### Causes in Exposure Factors * Wrong focal length for the case * X-ray tube malfunction * Long exposure time (usually not more than 12 seconds) * Not enough kVp * Failure of the X-ray machine ### Causes in Processing * Improper time-temperature setting for development (too cool) * Long development time * Too much agitation * Inadequate or old developer solution * Improper film sorting class * Operator's overexposure of the film (excessive-dose) * Operator's underexposure of the film (insufficient-dose) * Failure of the X-ray machine ## **DUSTY SPOTS (Fig. 5-38)** ### Causes in Exposure Factors * External objects in the field of the beam * Operator's overexposure of the film (excessive-dose) ## **RADIOACTIVITY (Fig. 5-39)** ### Causes in Exposure Factors * Kernel of radioactive element in the film ## **CHAIR, ACETONE, AND OIL (Fig. 5-40)** ### Causes in Exposure Factors * Overly dense areas in the film * Operator's overexposure of the film (excessive-dose) ## **HANDLERS HALLMARKS (Fig. 5-41)** ### Causes in Exposure Factors * Operator's overexposure of the film (excessive-dose) #### Positive-Fading or Washed Out (Fig. 5-34) ##### Causes in Exposure Factors - Incorrectly installed long-focus cone tip - Film-source distance is too far - Excessive kVp - Power-failure during exposure - Not using film cassette or trouble with cassette (bending) ##### Causes in Processing - Improper time-temperature setting for development (too cool) - High concentration of developer solution - Stale developer solution - New and fresh fixer solution - Failure to fix (insufficient time in fixer) - Developer has not reached the film during processing - In prolonged processing, the film was agitated too little #### Negative-Fading or Densification (Fig. 5-35) ##### Causes in Exposure Factors - Insufficient time - Insufficient current (mA)? - Insufficient kVp - Power-failure during exposure - Not using film cassette or trouble with cassette (bending) ##### Causes in Processing - Inadequate or old developer solution - Excessive development time for solution temperature - Old fixer solution - In new film processing, insufficient agitation time of the developer #### White Blends (Fig. 5-36) ##### Cause in Exposure Factors - Improperly exposed or old double emulsion X-ray films - Film brought into contact with fluorescent lamps ##### Cause in Processing - Improper time-temperature setting for development (too cool) - Undiluted or insufficiently diluted developer solution - Stale developer solution - Improper film sorting class - Improper storage of films in humid or hot conditions #### Radiation (Fig. 5-37) ##### Causes in Exposure Factors - Wrong focal length for the case - X-ray tube malfunction - Long exposure time (usually not more than 12 seconds) - Not enough kVp - Failure of the X-ray machine ##### Causes in Processing - Improper time-temperature setting for development (too cool) - Long development time - Too much agitation - Inadequate or old developer solution - Improper film sorting class - Operator's overexposure of the film (excessive-dose) - Operator's underexposure of the film (insufficient-dose) - Failure of the X-ray machine #### Dusty Spots (Fig. 5-38) ##### Causes in Exposure Factors - External objects in the field of the beam - Operator's overexposure of the film (excessive-dose) #### Radioactivity (Fig. 5-39) ##### Causes in Exposure Factors - Kernel of radioactive element in the film #### Chair, Acetone, and Oil (Fig. 5-40) ##### Causes in Exposure Factors - Overly dense areas in the film - Operator's overexposure of the film (excessive-dose) #### Handlers Hallmarks (Fig. 5-41) ##### Causes in Exposure Factors - Operator's overexposure of the film (excessive-dose) **Fifth Edition** **Essentials of** **Dental Radiography** **and Radiology** Eric Whitales Nicholas Drage CHURCHILL LIVINGSTONE ELSEVIER ORAL RADIOLOGY **Principles and Interpretation** EDITION 7 Stuart C. White Michael J. Pharoah EL SEVIER    **Fifth Edition** **Essentials of Dental Radiography and Radiology** Eric Whaites, Nicholas Drage CHURCHILL LIVINGSTONE ELSEVIER **ORAL RADIOLOGY** **Principles and Interpretation** **Edition 7** Stuart C. White, Michael J. Pharoah ELSEVIER Collage of dental radiographs and imaging modalities including panoramic X-rays, CT scans, and cross-sectional views of the skull and jaw. Collage showing a dental X-ray, an intraoral sensor or film packet, and additional radiographic images of teeth and bone structures. Lateral cephalometric radiograph (side view) of a human skull, displaying skeletal anatomy, maxilla, mandible, cervical spine, and soft tissue profile. [^1]: Original PDF page 1: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=1|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.1]] [^2]: Original PDF page 2: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=2|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.2]] [^3]: Original PDF page 3: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=3|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.3]] [^4]: Original PDF page 4: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=4|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.4]] [^5]: Original PDF page 5: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=5|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.5]] [^6]: Original PDF page 6: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=6|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.6]] [^7]: Original PDF page 7: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=7|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.7]] [^8]: Original PDF page 8: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=8|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.8]] [^9]: Original PDF page 9: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=9|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.9]] [^10]: Original PDF page 10: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=10|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.10]] [^11]: Original PDF page 11: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=11|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.11]] [^12]: Original PDF page 12: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=12|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.12]] [^13]: Original PDF page 13: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=13|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.13]] [^14]: Original PDF page 14: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=14|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.14]] [^15]: Original PDF page 15: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=15|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.15]] [^16]: Original PDF page 16: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=16|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.16]] [^17]: Original PDF page 17: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=17|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.17]] [^18]: Original PDF page 18: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=18|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.18]] [^19]: Original PDF page 19: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=19|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.19]] [^20]: Original PDF page 20: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=20|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.20]] [^21]: Original PDF page 21: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=21|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.21]] [^22]: Original PDF page 22: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=22|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.22]] [^23]: Original PDF page 23: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=23|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.23]] [^24]: Original PDF page 24: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=24|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.24]] [^25]: Original PDF page 25: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=25|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.25]] [^26]: Original PDF page 26: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=26|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.26]] [^27]: Original PDF page 27: [[L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults.pdf#page=27|L3 Analogue Films & Film Faults, p.27]]